How Birds Use Our Waters – Part 2: UK Territorial Waters

By Will Bevan

In my last blog post for UK Youth for Nature’s oceans campaign, I looked at how our coasts are crucial in supporting a huge diversity of bird species all year round. This time I’ll be travelling further out into our territorial waters, to see how the fate of the seabirds which call our shores home are inextricably tied to the health of our oceans.

What do we mean by territorial waters?

The term ‘territorial waters’ is often used as a broad term to encompass the seas which are under the jurisdiction of a government. This includes the territorial sea, which extends 12 nautical miles from the coastline, and the Exclusive Economic Zone, which extends a further 200 nautical miles out – unless there is another country within these limits. In the UK’s territorial waters, the government has control over all economic activity including fishing, mining, and energy production. It also has a responsibility to protect the incredibly diverse wildlife which calls these waters home, to make sure that we are surrounded by thriving, healthy seas.

It might surprise you to find out that the UK has the fifth largest Exclusive Economic Zone in the world, as it is responsible for the waters surrounding its overseas territories as well. This includes such far flung places as South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, Saint Helena, Gough Island, Tristan de Cunha, and the Pitcairn Islands. These overseas territories hugely increase the UK’s influence over the oceans, as well as the wildlife it is responsible for – a responsibility which is shared with the local governments of these territories. This also vastly increases the number of seabird species which occur in waters under UK jurisdiction, giving us an even greater role on the world stage in protecting them. For example, these territories are home to a quarter of the world’s penguins and a third of the world’s breeding albatrosses!

Why are our territorial waters important for seabirds?

Most seabirds are hugely dependent on the ocean as a source of food and are drawn to ‘hotspots’ of high productivity where prey is more abundant. These ‘hotspots’ are especially important during the breeding season, as seabirds need to have plenty of nutritious food within close range of their colonies so that they can provide enough for their hungry, growing chicks. The distances and locations they travel to find food will vary depending on the species, and even between individual birds, but seabirds must be able to balance feeding their chicks with their own energy needs. If they cannot, the adults must prioritise their own survival over that of their chicks, opting to try again the next year. Therefore seabirds thrive and successfully raise chicks in colonies where they can access abundant, reliable sources of food that they can travel to without exhausting themselves completely. The seas around the UK are highly productive, and this combined with the wide range of suitable habitats along our coastlines support the huge numbers and diversity of seabirds which live here. This is also true for UK overseas territories, with places like Gough Island supporting large colonies of breeding seabirds, including endangered sooty albatrosses, Atlantic yellow-nosed albatrosses, and the critically endangered Tristan albatross.

The availability of prey can be influenced by numerous factors which often interact in complex ways, such as ocean temperature, ocean currents, the topography of the seabed, and the time of year. Seabirds must time their breeding efforts for when conditions are just right and there will be plenty of food to raise their young. This means that their populations are highly sensitive to any changes in the marine environment that might affect how much prey there is, where it will be, and when it is around.

Our territorial waters are not just important during the breeding season, with some seabirds staying through the winter months whilst others disperse out into the open ocean or migrate to other shores. The birds that stay need to be able to find food to sustain them through the cold winter months, and whilst they are not tied to feeding their chicks at the colonies, stormy weather can rapidly deplete energy supplies and affect their ability to feed, with exhausted birds dying from hunger and exposure. These seabird ‘wrecks’ can be particularly bad in some years, such as in 2014, when thousands of dead birds washed up on our shores. Bad weather in winter can also have knock on effects in the breeding season, with storms in late winter and early spring influencing the ability of seabirds to get in prime condition for courtship and the demands of raising young.

Threats in our waters

What is clear is that seabirds require healthy, biodiverse, and productive oceans in order to give them the best chance of breeding and surviving all year round, and we therefore have a responsibility to ensure that this is the case where we have jurisdiction. However, some of our internationally important populations of seabirds, such as northern fulmars, European shags, Arctic skuas, and black-legged kittiwakes are declining alarmingly.For other species the picture is mixed, with Atlantic puffins doing poorly in places like Shetland and the Isle of May in the Northeast but faring better at Skomer and Skokholm Islands in Wales. Whilst the causes are often unclear as to exactly why these trends are occurring, with complex interactions between multiple stressors, we can identify some key factors in these declines:

Climate change

Warming oceans are affecting the availability of some prey species, such as sandeels, which are heavily relied on by birds like puffins and kittiwakes during the breeding season as a source of plentiful, nutritious food. Climate change is also increasing the incidence of severe storms, resulting in more seabird ‘wrecks’. The European shag is suffering this fate, being a coastal species which does not venture far from its colonies and having plumage which is not as waterproof as other seabirds it finds it difficult to escape bad weather and is therefore more susceptible to death by exposure. Climate change is going to be difficult to deal with, but the best way to ensure resilience against it is to deal effectively with other threats, such as overfishing, which are easier to deal with.

Overfishing

Commercial fisheries, especially those which target specific species, can be devastating for seabird populations which rely on these species. For example, in Scotland, commercial sandeel fisheries were found to be creating food shortages for kittiwakes by depriving them of this crucial resource during the breeding season. In this case, a seasonal ban was introduced on fishing during this time, demonstrating that we can act accordingly when we understand the causes of declines, although food shortages are still an issue as a result of climate change. Overfishing is also thought to have contributed to the decline of naturally nesting populations of Herring gulls, combined with changes in fisheries practices such as a reduction in discards, and this species has started to find more reliable food sources in our towns and cities. Over exploitation of fisheries is also happening in overseas territories, with populations of sooty terns on Ascension Island plummeting as a result.

We can deal with overfishing and other damaging economic activities by introducing bans and limits at certain times or year or by creating Marine Protected Areas (MPA’s). However, whilst nearly a quarter of the territorial waters around the UK are designated MPA’s, this is often in name only, with harmful activities such as fishing, bottom trawling and dredging still allowed. We therefore need immediate strengthening of these protections.

Fisheries bycatch

Like many other marine animals, such as dolphins, sharks, and turtles, seabirds can end up being killed unintentionally by fishing vessels. Birds such as albatrosses are particularly vulnerable, getting caught on the baited hooks of longline fishing vessels and being dragged underwater, for example. Whilst progress is being made in reducing bycatch by developing new technologies, increased monitoring, and education, dealing with this problem requires international cooperation as these species often roam large distances through the territorial waters of multiple nations.

Invasive species

Though not strictly a marine problem, invasive alien species such as mice, rats, and cats are a massive problem for seabirds, with chicks and incubating birds often helpless against predation, and they can decimate populations on some islands. Removal of invasive species will be one of the most effective ways to prevent seabird declines across many colonies, with restoration projects such as the one currently being undertaken on Gough Island hopefully improving their prospects. On Lundy Island in the Bristol Channel, rats were eradicated in 2006, and since then the seabird population has more than trebled, proving the effectiveness of dealing with this threat.

Pollution

Oil pollution can ruin the waterproofing of seabirds feathers, affecting feeding and thermoregulation and eventually resulting in death by exposure. Plastic pollution is a growing menace, within many species consuming large amounts of plastic and feeding it to their chicks. To them, as well as looking like food, plastic can also even smell like food, picking up a compound called dimethyl sulphide which is usually given off by some microorganisms when they break down, such as when they are being eaten. The seabirds can use this smell to detect prey which are eating the microorganisms, an amazing instinct which is unfortunately resulting in many deaths when birds eat the wrong things. Whilst plastic pollution is not a major cause of population declines at the moment, more and more plastic enters the oceans every day and production keeps increasing, and so it is vital to curb this threat now.

Next time, join me for the final part of this series, where I will be looking at the ‘High Seas’, the oceans beyond national jurisdiction which cover around 50% of the planet! Here there is often a crucial lack of protection for seabirds, with some species spending a large proportion of their time in these waters. The threats I touched on in this article are often much worse in the high seas, where there is usually no oversight, monitoring, or legal protection. I’ll be looking in depth at this overlooked part of our oceans and show that in order to halt drastic seabird declines, the UK needs to be a key player in the upcoming negotiations for a ‘High Seas Treaty’, which will ensure a legally binding commitment to conservation and sustainable development in areas beyond national jurisdiction.

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May 28, 2021 danielleshaw Oceans, Our member! 1 Comment  

A little bird told me… #2

Edition: Connect to Roaming

Land. It’s all around us. But what comes to mind when you think of ‘land’? There is a tendency for our minds to wander to the familiar portrayal of it as large swathes of farmed fields that exist autonomously and seperate from the spaces we live in; far from towns and cities. But land is everywhere. Issues that include land include us. Everywhere we are allowed to relax, socialise,  work: – whilst not in the air or in the sea, of course, is land. Something we all bear our weight on each day, trusting the ground below us to support and cradle us, holding us close, preventing us from falling out into distant galaxies… 

And land is around us for our whole lives. Everywhere we occupy, wherever we are. 

Yet, our experiences of what type of land we each are able to access varies so vastly from person to person – from inner city parks where pigeons coo; to disused tennis courts full of dandelions and grasses sneaking up through the cracks; to vast wetlands and mountains adorned with flowering heather and the quiet buzz of bees… The type of land we can each access not only affects where we are, but also who we are and how we are. 

It has been said countless times already that the type of spaces we have been able to reach during national lockdowns have been incredibly important for our health. But just how important is it?  Research by the University Of Surrey[1] found that some birdsong were able to offer relief from stress and mental fatigue, depending on the participants’ upbringing. Studies[2] have also shown a correlation between noise pollution and exacerbation of detrimental physical and mental health issues, as well as hindering the ability to have primary socialization and develop crucial early learning skills. Chronic exposure to noise keeps your stress receptors active for longer than is healthy- wearing down your immunity and making you more vulnerable to health problems. The effects that noise pollution has on communities and families further deepens the pre-existing disparity that exists in society. 

Ensuring that we have better access to land would be a chance for us to better the health of those that we share the land with. Lepidopterist (butterfly collector!), Robert Micheal Pyle, once wrote “What is the extinction of a Condor to a child who doesn’t know a Wren?”. The strength of our connection to the life around us is reflective and shows up as reciprocal acts of care. When we understand the ecological systems around us we can find our place within them, and be a naturally equal asset to the biomes we inhabit, belonging here as much as any other species. We all have gifts that we can share. 

In the UK we have a long history with land rights. I’d recommend Three Acres and a Cow (and Gafael Tir) for a full and fun way to absorb it all (via some catchy folk songs and poems). However, I’d like to talk about our recent history. Only 24 years ago the Right To Roam  legislation was made law, and due to actions such as the Kinder Scout Mass Trespass in 1938 were the first National Parks created only 70 years ago. Currently, the Right To Roam only covers areas that equals approx 8% of England’s land (in contrast to 100% of land in Scotland). However, these areas (such as The New Forest, Dartmoor and The Peak District) are often too far away to be part of people’s daily life. Currently, the Right To Roam campaign is working on ways to further our ability to access more of these vital spaces. Emerging work such as Who Owns England and Mapping The Lost Rainforests of England is really taking strides at mapping out the unseen and unspoken. So if you are able to, do enjoy the areas that we can access in the UK, either by footpaths, rights of way or the right to roam – and be sure to check out the countryside code guidelines.

If we only conjure up images of big farms and far away forests when we think of land, we run the risk of removing ourselves from it – losing our innate connection with it and the knowledge of how to live in symbiosis. If we don’t take time to imagine the future, we will get what is already being planned – and there’s a lot of inspiration coming in our next newsletter…

Additional links: 

Slow Ways – https://beta.slowways.org 

Groundwork ‘Out Of Bounds’ report: https://www.groundwork.org.uk/about-groundwork/reports/outofbounds/?fbclid=IwAR1znEn5LgRyEEg4jmP_-FZch_sqplP7iVKdjKU9ThGgFloEOBDRyq7ABHA

The Lost Rainforests of England – https://lostrainforestsofengland.org/2021/03/16/mapping-the-lost-rainforests-of-england/

Three Acres and a Cow – history of land rights – https://threeacresandacow.co.uk

Countryside Code Infographics – https://www.nfuonline.com/news/latest-news/use-our-free-countryside-code-resources-to-spread-the-word-with-walkers/

Who Owns England – https://whoownsengland.org

Gafael Tir – http://gafaeltir.cymru/en/home/

Study citation [2] – https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2018/jul/03/sonic-doom-noise-pollution-kills-heart-disease-diabetes

Study citation [1] – https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/how-listening-to-bird-song-can-transform-our-mental-health.html

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May 27, 2021 brendenbeckett A little bird told me, Blog, Nature Nearby, Our member! No Comments  

How Birds Use Our Waters – Part 1: Coastal Birds

By Will Bevan

When thinking about animals which use the marine environment, birds might not be the first to come to mind. However, the UK is responsible for globally important numbers of birds which use our shores and seas in some way. As part of UK Youth for Nature’s oceans campaign, I’ll be journeying from our coastlines, into territorial waters, and finally beyond to the high seas, to show how birds rely on these environments as well as the threats they face.

For this first post, I’ll be looking into the species which live along our shores. With over 31,000 kilometres of coastline, there is plenty of habitat available for our coastal birds, and they are alive with activity all year round. 

Seabird Cities

The coastlines of the UK are the perfect home for seabirds, where they jostle for space amongst our rugged cliffs and islands every spring and summer. These seabird cities are some of our most spectacular natural wonders, with places like the Farne Islands, Skomer Island, or the Isle of May being hugely popular wildlife attractions. It’s not hard to see why, as we are graced with a great variety of seabird species, some of which breed here in internationally important numbers. For example, the UK hosts 90% of the world’s population of Manx shearwater, a secretive seabird which returns to its underground burrows at night and migrates to South America and back each year. A few of the other species which breed here include the clownish Atlantic puffin, prehistoric looking European shags which sport iridescent plumage and snazzy head crests in the breeding season, dapper black and white razorbills, European storm-petrels which dance across the waves in stormy weather, and the bruisers of the skies, the great skuas. Seabirds in the UK are largely protected at their colonies, with many of our most important sites being free from human disturbance and free of invasive predators which can decimate their populations. However, this does not mean they are not threatened, with many of our seabird species in decline as a result of climate change and overfishing in our waters, issues I will delve into deeper next time.

In recent decades some of our seabird species, such as the herring gull and the kittiwake, have increasingly begun to nest in our cities, swapping the rocky cliffs for concrete ones. These are in fact two species which are declining alarmingly, both being Red listed in the UK as species of the highest conservation priority. Gulls receive a lot of bad press, which is often just scaremongering to grab attention, and we need to learn to be able to live amongst them. 

Beach Nesters 

Whilst many of us are aware of our seabird cities and the birds which breed there, there are a number of bird species which nest on our beaches, where they regularly come into close contact with humans. Species such as ringed plovers, oystercatchers, and little terns make small scrapes in sand or gravel, where they lay their eggs. These can often be very hard to see, and so it is important to take great care when walking on the beach. Beach nesting birds are also very vulnerable to disturbance, using precious energy trying to fend of threats. Dogs off their leads are one of the major sources of disturbance, so by placing dogs on leads where birds are nesting, you can do a great deal to give these birds a helping hand. 

There are a number of sites around the UK where beach nesting birds receive 24hr protection during the breeding season in order to ensure them the best chance of success, with dedicated wardens educating the public to decrease disturbance and to ward off predators such as foxes, badgers or domestic cats. Some threats are harder to deal with however, with climate change leading to rising sea levels and increased stormy weather, threatening to wash these beach colonies away.

Wintering Birds

The seabird cities and other coastal breeding sites go quiet at the end of the summer, with many birds heading out to sea or migrating to other shores to wait out the winter. Our coastlines now become important for a different reason, with hundreds of thousands of birds using our shores during these months as stopping off points on their migrations, using our coastal salt marshes and intertidal landscapes of sand and mud as feeding stations to refuel before continuing on their journeys. Many of them decide to stay for the whole winter, with birds from the Arctic and Scandinavia joining our resident birds which migrate to the coast from their inland breeding sites. One of our most important wintering sites, the Wash estuary in East Anglia, hosts up to 400,000 of these birds in the winter, and is internationally important for species such as curlew, redshank, knot and dunlin. Human development is threatening some of these crucial coastal areas, which can also provide natural defences for flooding caused by climate change.

As you may now be aware, the extensive UK coastline is home to a huge number of bird species which use our shores in many different ways. Next time I’ll be looking at how the fate of many of these birds is tied directly to the health of our territorial waters, where they are facing numerous threats. 

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May 15, 2021 mattadamwilliams Uncategorized 1 Comment  

UKY4N Ocean Campaign

By Joe Wilkins

Just as most* rivers eventually flow into the sea, UK Youth for Nature’s Freshwater Campaign is flowing into our Ocean Campaign.

Kicking off today (8th May 2021), our campaign will focus on critical areas of focus for UK politicians such as our coasts, territorial waters, and the High Seas (those beyond national jurisdiction).

Despite covering nearly three-quarters of the planet, the ocean has long been neglected in environmental policy and legislation. This can no longer be allowed to happen! It is not exaggerating to say that life on Earth depends on a healthy, functioning, and resilient ocean. From its control of the weather to its provision of food and other resources to its role in the mitigation of human activities such as fossil fuels, we must protect this most precious of Earth’s habitats.

Before diving into the Ocean, I would like to add that just because we are shifting our focus away from rivers does not mean we forget them altogether. It is not only water that rivers carry to the sea. They take large quantities of waste and pollution from the land into the ocean. With no river in England registering good ecological health, one must wonder about the impacts on our coastal areas such as estuaries, bays and our territorial waters. This reaffirms the need for a systemic and holistic approach to environmental conservation.

Now to fully immerse ourselves in issues facing the ocean.

Have you noticed the UK Governments choose to dodge many of the questions about our territorial waters? But what is the current condition of the UK’s territorial waters? In a word: poor (not my word of choice but this is a public blog). The Government would lead people to believe that large swathes of our territorial waters fall under the protection of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), but these are little more than paper parks. 

I was surprised to discover that only 5% of MPAs have a bottom trawling ban in force. Bottom trawling is one of the most damaging marine activities. It can release vast quantities of stored carbon from the seabed, destroy the local ecosystem and have knock-on consequences on the regional food webs. The combined impacts of bottom trawling, industrial fishing, and pollution can be devastating! The ecosystems in UK territorial waters are under extreme pressures, and we are already beginning to see impacts. Many seabirds, fish, and marine mammals are vanishing from our waters, such as the Puffin which has declined by as much as 42% over the past five years.

How can the governments claim that these areas are protected when bottom trawling and other damaging activities are allowed? The UK Governments have long lectured other countries on the best approaches to sustainable management of their waters, but I think they should be looking in the mirror (or in their reflection in the sea, though it may be polluted) and ask themselves: are we actually protecting our waters? They can no longer continue this “do as I say, not as I do” approach to ocean conservation, and we are calling on them to change now!

With the expected signing of the High Seas Treaty (formally the Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction Treaty) in August, attention should also be on our role in protecting the seas beyond our view. The UK Government (Westminster) has been active in creating a Global Oceans Alliance and using its diplomatic strength to encourage others to sign the treaty, which should be commended. But on its own behaviour, the Government has been suspiciously quiet. Could this be because they are attempting to hide the fact that they in the process of giving deep-sea mining rights to global weapons companies? The High Seas Treaty needs to be strong and protect these vast areas (nearly 50% of the planet’s surface) from damaging human activities. 

As an island and maritime nation, the UK is inherently linked to the health of the ocean. But more than this, the world is connected to the health of the ocean. Every one of us. No matter if we live right on the coast or hundreds of miles away from the sea. So my ask to the UK Governments is: get serious about ocean conservation. Empty promises, paper parks, and finger pointing will no longer cut it.

Join us at UK Youth for Nature in making sure that the UK Governments keep to their promises to protect the ocean!

I would like to end my rant blog with this quote from Arthur C. Clarke about the size and importance of the global ocean:

How inappropriate to call this planet Earth when it is quite clearly Ocean.

*Of course, there are some exceptions to this statement. Do check out examples of rivers that end in inland basins, such as the Okavango Delta in Botswana.

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May 8, 2021 brendenbeckett Oceans, Our member! No Comments  

Large scale mammal reintroductions in the UK – what are they and why do we want them?

A What the Heck? series blog.

By Christina Derrick

What are reintroductions and why are they happening? 

Imagine going for a walk in the countryside, what animals might you expect to see? 

Probably some cows, most definitely some sheep, perhaps a red kite, a buzzard or a red fox. If you’re really lucky you might even see a pine marten if you’re in the right part of the UK or a golden eagle, even a beaver or two! What if you could see a bison, or even an elusive lynx while wandering around the woods? To some this might sound far-fetched or even scary but with the rewilding zeitgeist gradually gaining more support and credibility it may only be a matter of time before these idle dreams become reality.

In ecology and conservation, a reintroduction is the act of putting a species back into its ‘historic habitat range’, simply put it’s a place the species used to live before humans intervened. Often reintroductions provide a way for species to get back to those historic habitat ranges where they otherwise wouldn’t be able to do so, due to things like the lack of a land bridge or lack of habitat corridors to the habitats (Some species prefer shelter when they’re moving around and won’t move through open spaces). Reintroductions have happened for decades, be it through global conservation efforts or rogue gorilla reintroductions. Though every reintroduction is different, they all come with some downsides and not all of them succeed. 

The red kite and blue butterfly are good examples of species that once given a helping hand can slowly start to look after themselves after reintroduction. The red kite was globally threatened and severely range restricted in the UK in the 1980s, and the large blue butterfly was actually declared extinct in the UK in 1979, but after coordinated efforts and the translocation and reintroduction of European individuals of these species, both the red kite and the large blue butterfly are once again UK residents. 

In recent years several mammals have become focal points for reintroduction projects in the UK, including Eurasian lynx, European bison, Eurasian beaver and more. Many mammal species proposed for reintroduction were extirpated (removed) from the UK hundreds of years ago if not longer due to a combination of over-hunting, deforestation, and other land-use changes. In fact in a much more recent event, rapid industrialisation and changes in agricultural practices have led to the UK becoming one of the most ecologically depleted countries in the world.

Human society relies on ecosystems and we now understand that biodiversity is fundamental for healthy functioning ecosystems. However, taking a purely passive protectionist approach to nature and biodiversity (i.e. conserving what we have left) will not be enough to solve the ecological crisis we currently face. This is where reintroductions become important as they are a vital tool in the arsenal of a conservationist. 

How would mammal reintroductions help address the ecological crisis?

Mammal reintroductions not only address missing biodiversity in the UK, but they also restore vital ecological processes and functions that are currently missing from our ecosystems.  Since the grey wolf reintroduction programme to Yellowstone it has become abundantly clear that apex predators provide substantial ecological benefits to an ecosystem through the suppression of mesopredators (smaller predators such as fox), control of herbivore numbers, and provision of carrion for scavengers. These effects can quickly spread throughout an ecosystem, reducing the effects of overgrazing on vulnerable vegetation, and allow many other species to thrive if pressure from mesopredators is reduced. This effect is known as a trophic cascade, and in the UK it is hoped that reintroductions of top predators such as the lynx would have a similar effect in woodland habitats, where deer overgrazing is deemed a large contributor to forest habitat health decline.

However, it’s not only top predators that can have far reaching effects on their ecosystem, as cascades don’t always flow from the top down! It is becoming increasingly clear that large herbivores (mega-herbivores) play an important role in increasing ecosystem diversity. For example, through grazing, stomping and wallowing habits, European bison are key drivers of creating mosaic grassland wood pasture habitats, and by opening up areas of woodland they allow associated species like insects, butterflies and reptiles to thrive.  Wild boar do this too. By churning up earth in search of food wild boar make space for annual wildflowers, and shrubs to germinate, as well as creating burrowing opportunities for bees and beetles. So many opportunities for increasing biodiversity!

However, size isn’t everything either! At a mere 19kg the Eurasian beaver is perhaps one of the most significant ecosystem engineer species to have existed in the UK. By digging canals, building dams, and creating dead wood, beavers significantly alter the water flow of rivers, creating a diversity of habitats for life to flourish. For example, in the river Otter beaver trials small pools held more fish and allowed water vole to find refuge from invasive mink. By slowing the flow of water, beaver dams also improve the quality of downstream water by trapping carbon and nutrients leached from fields, and they can also reduce flood risk  too. 

So, by reintroducing mammals across the UK we can upscale our ecosystems, improve their resilience and benefit from nature-based solutions addressing growing environmental issues such as flooding, woodland management and even climate change! Notwithstanding the ecological benefits of mammal reintroductions, there can also be significant economic rewards for the surrounding communities through ecotourism. 

If mammal reintroductions are so great, why aren’t we doing them everywhere?

Mammal reintroductions (or reintroductions in general) aren’t the silver bullet to solve all our ecological problems. Great care must be taken to ensure that the species has a significant chance of success where it is reintroduced and there are several considerations to address namely:

Space and habitat.

The UK landscape has changed over the last few thousand (or even few hundred) years. Over the long term forest cover has decreased, urban sprawl has increased, and fences, motorways and other roads criss-cross the land cutting the countryside up into little chunks that represent a significant challenge for the reintroduction of some large ranging species. However, there are still many areas of the UK physically suitable for the reintroduction of mammals, and with increased focus on landscape scale rewilding and reforesting initiatives many more areas could become suitable.

Cost and logistics. 

Capturing, breeding, and transporting wild mammals from mainland Europe to the UK is expensive, for example the Wilder Blean bison project is estimated to cost around £1 million. A great deal of skill, and expertise is also required both in technical field logistics and navigating the UK conservation legislation which is not set up to easily facilitate reintroductions. 

Opposition from landowners and other interest groups

Not all mammal reintroductions are controversial, for example the Vincent Wildlife Trust pine martin recovery project in Wales made little in the way of newspaper headlines. However, more controversy exists around proposed reintroductions of predators or other species that have the potential to impact or change current ways of living. 

Given the lengthy periods of time many reintroduction candidates have been absent from the UK, they no longer exist in our cultural memory, that is we do not remember how to live alongside them. When viewed in this disconnected way some of their impacts can be perceived as nuisances or unnecessary risks rather than ‘facts of life’. 

Opposition to mammal reintroductions ranges from fear of injury, predation, the spread of disease to livestock and/or other native species, to worries about flooding of agricultural fields or damage to infrastructure (in the case of beavers). These worries are not always unfounded and for a reintroduction to be successful they must be addressed. This is where conservationists and ecologists need to look outside their own field and collaborate with social scientists, local governments, and the communities surrounding reintroduction areas too. 

Some exciting examples

Despite the myriad of obstacles to mammal reintroductions in the UK there are still some encouraging examples with some creative solutions!

Wilder Blean

As you may be aware, recent proposals to reintroduce the lynx to the UK have been met some staunch opposition, especially from farmers who fear predation. As mentioned above, predator reintroduction proposals are often more controversial than herbivore reintroductions. Even herbivores who weigh a whopping 600 kg! So, while we may be a way off seeing lynx once again roam the UK countryside, we are only a few years away from seeing European Bison! Extirpated from the UK 15,000 years ago and driven to the brink of extinction in the rest of Europe too, four of these giants are set to be released in Kent in 2022. As part of an ambitious project co-led by Kent Wildlife Trust and Wildwoods Trust aiming to ‘rewild’ Blean woods through natural (bison led) woodland management. 

Beavers

While successful beaver trials and subsequent reintroductions were carried out without enclosures in Scotland, in other parts of the UK the prospect of free release can be contentious (for reasons discussed above). However, that has not stopped the establishment of several successful enclosed trials which have shown the huge landscape benefits of welcoming these creatures back to our waterways. In Cornwall, Devon and Kent small numbers of beavers have been released into enclosures ranging from 3 – 30 hectares where they have been a huge success in restoring wet meadows and fens, and slowing water flow which could be vital to combatting local flooding! 

Knepp

On the sprawling 3,500-acre Knepp estate, populations of Tamworth pigs are working wonders for the land. The intensive farmland come pioneering rewilding project has used creativity to overcome dangerous animal laws that prohibit the reintroduction of wild boar to the area. Instead they use the rare Tamworth pig as a proxy. Despite being slightly smaller than its wild relative, the pigs grazing and rooting behaviour is helping to boost invertebrate and bird populations on the estate. Knepp now has the largest breeding population of the purple emperor and is the only place in the UK where turtle dove populations are increasing!

To cut a long story short, mammal reintroductions are an incredibly important tool for solving the ecological crisis we currently face. Not only in terms of replacing or reinforcing extirpated or threatened populations of species but also for improving ecosystem health and diversity through the reestablishment of vital ecosystem services. Clearly, context is important and there are a variety of socio-economic and ecological factors that need to be considered when considering reintroductions, a lynx in Hyde park probably wouldn’t be very happy for example. However, the time has come to be proactive, taking a purely protectionist approach to nature conservation is not enough given the depauperate state of UK wildlife. The future is rewilding and we should embrace it!

** End note **

This blog post has focussed on mammal reintroductions however, it should be stated that reintroductions of other groups such as birds, invertebrates, plants, and fungi too. All species have a role to play in their ecosystem and the more there are the more resilient the ecosystem can be.

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May 7, 2021 brendenbeckett Our member!, What the heck? No Comments